01Business Activity & Needs vs Wants
▼- Needs: essentials for survival — food, water, shelter, clothing
- Wants: things we desire but don't need to survive — luxury goods, entertainment
- Scarcity: unlimited wants but limited resources → need to make choices
- Opportunity cost: the next best alternative given up when making a choice
- Factors of production: Land (natural resources), Labour (workers), Capital (machinery/buildings), Enterprise (risk-taking/organising)
- Business purpose: combine factors of production to provide goods/services that satisfy needs/wants and earn profit
- Added value = selling price − cost of bought-in materials. Businesses survive by adding value
Opportunity cost is one of the most tested concepts. Always apply it specifically — "the opportunity cost of building a factory is the hospital that could have been built instead."
02Types of Business Organisation
▼| Type | Ownership | Liability | Key Feature |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sole Trader | 1 person | Unlimited | Full control; all profit; easy to set up |
| Partnership | 2–20 partners | Usually unlimited | Shared skills & capital; governed by Deed |
| Private Ltd (Ltd) | Shareholders (private) | Limited | Cannot sell shares to public; suffix "Ltd" |
| Public Ltd (PLC) | Public shareholders | Limited | Listed on stock exchange; must publish accounts |
| Franchise | Franchisee (licensee) | Varies | Uses franchisor's brand & system |
| Joint Venture | Two+ businesses | Shared | Temporary partnership for a project |
| Co-operative | Members equally | Limited | Democratic; profit shared among members |
✓ Limited Liability
- Personal assets protected
- Owners only lose their investment
- Encourages investors
- Risk reduced
✗ Unlimited Liability
- Personal assets at risk
- Debts paid from own money
- Deters risk-taking
- Sole traders, partnerships
03Business Objectives & Stakeholders
▼- SMART objectives: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-bound
- Common objectives: Profit maximisation, survival, growth, market share, social responsibility, customer satisfaction
- Stakeholders: anyone with an interest in the business — internal (owners, employees) or external (customers, suppliers, government, community)
| Stakeholder | Main Interest | Conflict Example |
|---|---|---|
| Shareholders | Profit / dividends | vs employees wanting higher wages |
| Employees | Good pay, security, conditions | vs shareholders wanting cost cuts |
| Customers | Low prices, quality, service | vs shareholders wanting high prices |
| Government | Tax revenue, employment | vs business wanting low tax |
| Community | Environment, local jobs | vs business wanting cheap production |
| Suppliers | Regular orders, prompt payment | vs business wanting credit terms |
04Business Size, Growth & Integration
▼- Measures of size: number of employees, turnover (revenue), capital employed, market share, profit
- Internal (organic) growth: grow using own resources — new products, new markets, more sales
- External growth: merger (two agree to combine) or takeover/acquisition (one buys another)
- Horizontal integration: merger with firm at same stage, same industry (e.g. two banks merge)
- Vertical integration: merger with firm at different stage of same industry
- Forward vertical: buying a firm closer to customer (e.g. manufacturer buys retailer)
- Backward vertical: buying a supplier (e.g. manufacturer buys raw material supplier)
- Conglomerate: merger with firm in different industry (diversification)
- Diseconomies of scale: problems that arise when a firm grows too large — poor communication, low motivation, inefficiency
05Economies of Scale
▼Economies of scale = as output increases, average cost per unit falls. Larger businesses have lower unit costs.
| Type | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Purchasing economies | Bulk buying → lower price per unit from suppliers |
| Technical economies | Can afford specialised/automated machinery |
| Financial economies | Larger firms can borrow at lower interest rates |
| Marketing economies | Fixed advertising costs spread over more units |
| Managerial economies | Can afford specialist managers (HR, finance, marketing) |
| Risk-bearing economies | Spread risk across many products/markets |
Average CostTotal Cost ÷ Output
DiseconomiesUnit costs RISE as business grows too large
06Market Research
▼Primary Research
- Collected first-hand
- Surveys, interviews
- Questionnaires
- Observation
- Focus groups
- Up-to-date & specific
- Expensive & slow
Secondary Research
- Already published data
- Internet, reports
- Gov statistics
- Trade publications
- Internal sales records
- Cheap & quick
- May be outdated
Quantitative
- Numerical data
- Statistics, %
- Large samples
- Objective
Qualitative
- Opinions/feelings
- Reasons why
- Small samples
- Focus groups
- Sampling: Random (every person equal chance), Quota (specific number per group), Stratified (proportional to population groups)
- Bias: leading questions, non-representative sample, small sample size → unreliable results
07Marketing Mix — The 4 Ps
▼| P | Key Concepts |
|---|---|
| Product | USP (unique selling point), product life cycle (Introduction→Growth→Maturity→Decline), branding, extension strategies |
| Price | Cost-plus, competitive, penetration, skimming, psychological (£9.99), promotional pricing, price discrimination |
| Place | Distribution channels: manufacturer→wholesaler→retailer→consumer; direct selling; e-commerce; franchise |
| Promotion | Above-the-line (mass media: TV, radio, newspapers) vs Below-the-line (targeted: leaflets, social media, loyalty cards, POS); AIDA (Attention, Interest, Desire, Action) |
Price skimming = high launch price (tech). Penetration pricing = low launch price to gain market share. Know when each is appropriate.
Market Share(Firm sales ÷ Total market sales) × 100
Market Growth(Change in market size ÷ Original) × 100
08Production Methods & Productivity
▼| Method | Description | Example | Pros / Cons |
|---|---|---|---|
| Job production | One-off, unique items made to order | Wedding cake, tailor-made suit, ship | High quality, flexible / slow, expensive per unit |
| Batch production | Groups of identical items made together | Bakery, clothing sizes | Flexible, some EoS / downtime between batches |
| Flow/mass production | Continuous production line, standardised | Cars, bottled drinks | Very low unit cost, fast / high setup cost, inflexible, repetitive |
ProductivityOutput ÷ Input (per worker)
Labour ProductivityTotal output ÷ Number of workers
- Lean production / Kaizen: eliminate waste, continuous improvement. JIT = stock delivered exactly when needed
- Quality control: inspecting finished products. Quality assurance: checking at every stage
- TQM (Total Quality Management): everyone responsible for quality at all levels
09Costs, Revenue & Profit
▼Fixed CostsDon't change with output (rent, salaries, insurance)
Variable CostsChange with output (raw materials, piece-rate wages)
Total CostFixed Costs + Variable Costs
Total RevenuePrice × Quantity sold
ProfitTotal Revenue − Total Costs
ContributionSelling price − Variable cost per unit
Break-even outputFixed Costs ÷ Contribution per unit
Margin of SafetyActual output − Break-even output
Break-even chart: Fixed cost line (horizontal), Total cost line (slope from FC), Revenue line (from origin). Break-even = where TC meets Revenue. Area between = profit or loss.
10Cash Flow
▼Net Cash FlowCash Inflows − Cash Outflows
Closing BalanceOpening Balance + Net Cash Flow
- Cash inflows: cash sales, loans received, capital injected, asset sales, debtor payments
- Cash outflows: wages, rent, supplier payments, loan repayments, equipment purchases
- Cash flow ≠ profit: a profitable business can run out of cash (overtrading, long credit periods)
- Improving cash flow: bank overdraft, reduce credit period for customers, increase credit period from suppliers, sell assets, cut costs, delay payments
- Cash flow forecast: shows expected inflows/outflows — helps identify future cash shortages
11Sources of Finance
▼| Source | Type | Best for |
|---|---|---|
| Personal savings | Internal / Equity | Small start-ups; no interest |
| Retained profit | Internal / Equity | Existing businesses; no cost |
| Sale of assets | Internal | Raising quick cash |
| Bank loan | External / Debt | Medium-long term investment |
| Bank overdraft | External / Debt | Short-term cash flow problems |
| Mortgage | External / Debt | Buying property (long-term) |
| Share issue | External / Equity | PLCs; large capital needed |
| Venture capital | External / Equity | High-risk start-ups; gives equity |
| Leasing | External | Equipment without large outlay |
| Trade credit | External | Buying now, paying later (30/60 days) |
| Grants / subsidies | External | Not repaid; government/charities |
| Crowdfunding | External | New ideas via public |
12Human Resources — Recruitment & Training
▼- Workforce planning: ensure right number of right-skilled workers at the right time
- Internal recruitment: promoting/transferring existing staff. Fast, cheap, known person, but limits new ideas
- External recruitment: job ads, agencies, schools/universities. New ideas, wider choice, but slow and expensive
- Job description: duties and responsibilities of the role
- Person specification: qualities, skills and qualifications required of applicant
- On-the-job training: at workplace, learning while doing. Cheaper, job-specific. May learn bad habits
- Off-the-job training: external courses, college. Wider skills, professional. Expensive, time off work
- Induction training: introduction to new employees — workplace policies, safety, culture
13Motivation Theories & Methods
▼| Theorist | Theory | Key Idea |
|---|---|---|
| Maslow | Hierarchy of Needs | 5 levels: Physiological → Safety → Social → Esteem → Self-actualisation. Lower needs met first. |
| Taylor | Scientific Management | Workers motivated by money only. Time and motion studies. Pay per piece (piece-rate). |
| Herzberg | Two-Factor Theory | Hygiene factors (prevent dissatisfaction: pay, conditions, security) and Motivators (cause satisfaction: achievement, recognition, responsibility). |
| Financial Methods | Non-Financial Methods |
|---|---|
| Piece-rate pay | Job enrichment (more responsibility) |
| Bonus / commission | Job rotation (variety) |
| Profit sharing | Job enlargement (more tasks) |
| Performance-related pay | Teamwork / autonomy |
| Fringe benefits (company car) | Promotion / recognition |
14Leadership Styles & Organisational Structure
▼| Style | Description | Best When |
|---|---|---|
| Autocratic | Leader makes all decisions; no input from staff | Crisis, military, unskilled workers |
| Democratic | Workers involved in decision-making; leader has final say | Skilled/creative teams, complex decisions |
| Laissez-faire | Leader delegates; workers have full freedom | Highly skilled, self-motivated professionals |
| Paternalistic | Leader acts like a parent; consults but decides for workers | When leader knows best; loyal workforce |
- Span of control: number of subordinates a manager directly supervises. Wider = more delegation
- Chain of command: the line of authority from top to bottom of organisation
- Delegation: passing authority to subordinates. Frees up manager time; motivates workers
- Tall structure: many levels, narrow span. Slow communication, close supervision
- Flat structure: few levels, wide span. Fast communication, more delegation, less supervision
- Delayering: removing layers of management → flatter structure, lower costs
15Communication
▼- One-way communication: sender → receiver (memo, notice). Quick but no feedback
- Two-way communication: sender ↔ receiver (conversation, meeting). Slower but better understanding
- Formal channels: official routes — emails, reports, meetings, memos
- Informal channels: unofficial — conversations, rumours ("grapevine")
- Barriers to communication: language differences, information overload, poor technology, noise, cultural differences, too many layers
- Improving communication: fewer layers, clear language, appropriate channel, feedback mechanisms, translation
16Operations Management — Stock & Quality
▼Re-order levelStock level at which new order is placed
Re-order quantityAmount ordered each time
Buffer stockMinimum stock kept to prevent stockouts
Lead timeTime between placing order and delivery
- JIT (Just In Time): stock delivered exactly when needed → zero buffer stock. Saves storage cost. Risk: delivery failure
- Quality control: checking at end of production. Wastes materials if defects found late
- Quality assurance: checks at every stage of production. Prevents defects rather than finding them
- Benchmarking: comparing performance against best-in-class competitors
17External Influences — PEST Analysis
▼| Factor | Examples & Impact |
|---|---|
| Political | Government regulations, taxation, import tariffs, minimum wage laws, consumer protection laws |
| Economic | Interest rates (↑ = less borrowing, less spending), inflation (↑ prices = lower real income), unemployment, exchange rates, economic growth/recession |
| Social | Ageing population, changing tastes, urbanisation, education levels, ethical consumerism |
| Technological | Automation, e-commerce, social media marketing, new production methods, remote working |
Interest rates: High rates → businesses borrow less (investment falls), consumers spend less (revenue falls). Low rates → opposite.
Exchange rates: Strong £ → exports more expensive (bad for exporters), imports cheaper. Weak £ → opposite.
18International Business & Globalisation
▼- Globalisation: growing integration of world's economies through trade, communication, movement of people
- Multinationals (MNCs): companies operating in multiple countries. Bring jobs & investment but may exploit workers/environment
- Import tariffs: tax on imports — raises price of foreign goods → protects domestic industry
- Quotas: physical limit on amount of imports
- Subsidies: government payment to domestic producer → lower their costs → more competitive
- Free trade: no barriers to imports/exports between countries. Promotes competition and lower prices
✓ Benefits of MNCs
- Create jobs locally
- Invest in infrastructure
- Transfer technology
- Tax revenue for gov
✗ Problems of MNCs
- Exploit cheap labour
- Harm environment
- Profit repatriated
- Kill local businesses
19Business Ethics & CSR
▼- Business ethics: moral principles guiding business behaviour — right vs wrong decisions in business
- CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility): business responsibility to society beyond profit — environment, communities, employees
- Examples of ethical behaviour: fair pay, no child labour, environmental care, honest advertising, safe products
✓ Being Ethical
- Better reputation
- Customer loyalty
- Attract good staff
- Avoid legal action
- Long-term survival
✗ Cost of Ethics
- Higher production costs
- Lower short-term profit
- Shareholder conflict
- Limits options
20Market Segmentation & Targeting
▼- Market segmentation: dividing a market into groups of customers with similar characteristics
- Bases for segmentation: demographic (age, gender, income), geographic (region, country), psychographic (lifestyle, values), behavioural (usage, loyalty)
- Target market: specific segment a business focuses its marketing on
- Mass marketing: one product for whole market (lower cost per unit; no personalisation)
- Niche marketing: targeting a specific small segment (higher price/margin; smaller volume; easier to dominate)
- USP: unique feature that differentiates a product from competitors
21Business Planning & Location
▼- Business plan includes: description of business, market research, SWOT analysis, marketing plan, financial forecasts, operations plan
- SWOT: Strengths/Weaknesses (internal) and Opportunities/Threats (external)
- Factors affecting location: proximity to raw materials, labour supply, market/customers, transport links, government incentives, rent/land costs
- Multi-site location: operating in several locations → wider market reach but more complex management
- Online businesses: location less important — can operate globally from anywhere
22Financial Statements & Analysis
▼Gross ProfitRevenue − Cost of Sales
Net ProfitGross Profit − Expenses
Gross Profit Margin(GP ÷ Revenue) × 100
Net Profit Margin(NP ÷ Revenue) × 100
ROCE(NP ÷ Capital Employed) × 100
Current RatioCurrent Assets ÷ Current Liabilities
- Income statement shows profitability; Balance sheet shows financial position (assets vs liabilities)
- Investors look at ROCE to compare return vs alternatives (e.g. bank interest)
- Current ratio 2:1 = ideal. Below 1:1 = liquidity problem
🧠 Business Studies Quick Fire
1. A business buys out its main supplier. This is an example of:
2. Fixed costs = $10,000. Selling price = $15. Variable cost per unit = $5. Break-even output is?
3. According to Herzberg, which of these is a MOTIVATOR (not a hygiene factor)?
4. A firm launches a new product at a very low price to quickly gain market share. This strategy is called:
5. Which type of business has unlimited liability AND is owned by one person?
6. A business trains its workers at the factory while they do their jobs. This is:
7. An increase in interest rates would most likely:
8. What does SWOT stand for?
01Population — Growth, Distribution & Change
▼Birth RateBirths per 1,000 people per year
Death RateDeaths per 1,000 people per year
Natural IncreaseBirth Rate − Death Rate
Population GrowthNatural increase + Net migration
| DTM Stage | BR | DR | Pop Growth | Country Type |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stage 1 | High | High | Low/stable | Pre-industrial (rare) |
| Stage 2 | High | Falling | Rapid rise | LDCs / developing |
| Stage 3 | Falling | Low | Slowing | Newly industrialised |
| Stage 4 | Low | Low | Low/stable | MEDCs / developed |
| Stage 5 | Very low | Low | Declining | Some W. European |
- Population pyramid: wide base = young/growing population; narrow base = ageing/declining
- Factors affecting distribution: relief, climate, soils, water supply, resources, accessibility
- Overpopulation: too many people for resources. Underpopulation: too few to use resources efficiently
- China's One-Child Policy: reduced birth rate, ageing population, gender imbalance — now replaced
- Pro-natalist policy (France, Sweden): encourage births with tax incentives, childcare, maternity leave
02Migration
▼Push Factors
- Poverty / unemployment
- War / persecution
- Natural disaster
- Famine / drought
- Lack of services
- Political instability
Pull Factors
- Better jobs / wages
- Political freedom
- Better healthcare
- Education
- Family links
- Safer environment
| Source Country | Host Country | |
|---|---|---|
| Advantages | Remittances sent home; reduces pressure on resources; migrants gain skills | Fills skills gaps; younger workforce; cultural diversity; economic growth |
| Disadvantages | Brain drain; ageing population remains; loss of productive workers | Pressure on housing/services; social tension; xenophobia |
- International migration: moving between countries. Internal: within a country
- Refugees: forced to flee due to war, persecution — different from economic migrants
03Settlement — Site, Pattern & Urban Growth
▼- Site factors: flat land, near water, sheltered from wind, south-facing slopes, defensible, fertile soil
- Settlement patterns: nucleated (clustered), linear (along road/river), dispersed (spread out)
- Settlement hierarchy: hamlet → village → town → city → conurbation → megalopolis
- CBD (Central Business District): highest land values, tallest buildings, shops and offices, no housing. PLVI = peak land value intersection
- Urban zones: CBD → inner city (old industrial) → inner suburbs → outer suburbs → rural-urban fringe
- Urban models: Burgess (concentric rings), Hoyt (sectors), Mann (combines both)
04Urbanisation — LEDCs & MEDCs
▼- Urbanisation: increasing proportion of people living in urban areas
- Causes: rural-urban migration + natural population increase in cities
- Squatter settlements (shanty towns / favelas): informal housing built illegally on unused land. Lack water, sanitation, electricity, security of tenure
- Improving squatter settlements: self-help schemes (give materials/land), site and service schemes (provide basic infrastructure), NGO projects
- Urban problems in MEDCs: traffic congestion, pollution, housing shortage, suburbanisation, counter-urbanisation, social inequality
- Counter-urbanisation: people moving from city to countryside. Causes: improved transport, telecommuting, desire for quality of life
- Sustainable cities: reduce waste, renewable energy, green spaces, efficient public transport, mixed use development
Key case studies often used: Rio de Janeiro (squatter settlements), Lagos (rapid urbanisation), Singapore (sustainable city management).
05Rivers — Processes, Landforms & Management
▼| Process | Description |
|---|---|
| Erosion: Hydraulic action | Force of water breaks up rock |
| Erosion: Abrasion (corrasion) | Rock particles scrape/wear away channel bed and banks |
| Erosion: Attrition | Rocks knock together and break into smaller pieces |
| Erosion: Solution (corrosion) | Acid water dissolves soluble minerals |
| Transport: Traction | Large boulders rolled along bed |
| Transport: Saltation | Stones bounced along bed |
| Transport: Suspension | Fine sediment carried in water |
| Transport: Solution | Dissolved minerals in water |
| Deposition | Sediment dropped when river slows |
| Landform | Location | Formation |
|---|---|---|
| V-shaped valley | Upper course | Vertical erosion + weathering of slopes |
| Waterfall | Upper course | Hard rock over soft rock → undercutting → overhang collapses → plunge pool |
| Gorge | Upper course | Waterfall retreats upstream over time |
| Meanders | Middle/lower | Fastest flow on outside (erosion = river cliff); slowest inside (deposition = slip-off slope) |
| Ox-bow lake | Lower course | Meander neck cut through; meander sealed off |
| Flood plain | Lower course | Flat land flooded by river; built up by alluvium |
| Levees | Lower course | Natural embankments; sediment deposited at edge during flood |
| Delta | Mouth | Deposition where river meets sea/lake (low velocity) |
Hard Engineering
- Dams & reservoirs
- Embankments (levees)
- Channel straightening
- Flood walls
Soft Engineering
- Afforestation
- Flood plain zoning
- Managed retreat
- Warning systems
06Coasts — Erosion, Deposition & Management
▼- Wave erosion: hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition, solution (same as rivers)
- Headlands and bays: formed where alternating hard and soft rock meets coast. Hard rock = headland; soft = bay
- Caves → arches → stacks → stumps: erosion of a headland over time
- Cliff retreat: wave-cut notch at base → overhang collapses → wave-cut platform left behind
- Longshore drift: waves approach at angle → swash moves sediment up at angle → backwash straight back → net movement along coast
- Spits: long ridge of sand extending into sea where coastline changes direction (e.g. river mouth)
- Beaches: deposition in sheltered areas — constructive waves (long, low, strong swash, weak backwash)
Hard Coastal Engineering
- Sea walls (reflect waves)
- Groynes (trap sediment)
- Rock armour (rip rap)
Problems / Soft
- Expensive to maintain
- Displacement of erosion
- Beach nourishment
- Managed retreat
07Weather & Climate
▼- Weather = day-to-day atmospheric conditions. Climate = average weather over 30+ years
- Relief (orographic) rainfall: air forced upwards over mountains → cools → condenses → rain on windward side; rain shadow on leeward
- Convectional rainfall: sun heats ground → air rises → cools → condenses → heavy afternoon storms (tropics)
- Frontal rainfall: warm air rises over cold air at a front → cools → rain. UK weather
- Factors affecting climate: latitude (distance from equator), altitude, distance from sea (continentality), prevailing winds, ocean currents
| Climate Type | Location | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Equatorial | 0–5° N/S latitude | Hot (26–28°C) all year; heavy rain daily; no dry season |
| Hot Desert | 15–30° N/S | Very hot days, cold nights; <250mm rain/yr; extreme diurnal range |
| Mediterranean | 30–45° N/S | Hot dry summers; warm wet winters |
| Tropical Monsoon | 5–25° N/S | Wet and dry seasons; high rainfall when ITCZ overhead |
| Temperate Maritime | 45–60° N/S | Mild, wet winters; warm summers; rain all year (UK) |
08Climate Change & Global Warming
▼- Greenhouse effect: natural process where GHGs (CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, water vapour) trap heat from the sun
- Enhanced greenhouse effect: extra GHGs from human activity → more heat trapped → global warming
- Causes: burning fossil fuels (CO₂), deforestation (less CO₂ absorbed), agriculture/livestock (CH₄), landfill (CH₄), cement production
Effects of Climate Change
- Rising sea levels → floods
- More extreme weather
- Melting ice caps
- Species extinction
- Drought in some areas
- Coral bleaching
Responses
- Paris Agreement
- Renewable energy
- Carbon taxes
- Reforestation
- Electric vehicles
- Sustainable farming
Distinguish: mitigation = reducing GHG emissions (preventing climate change); adaptation = changing behaviour to cope with already-occurring changes.
09Ecosystems & Biomes
▼- Ecosystem: community of living organisms (biotic) interacting with their non-living environment (abiotic)
- Food chain: producer → primary consumer → secondary consumer → tertiary consumer
- Nutrient cycle: nutrients in soil → taken up by plants → returned by decomposers → back to soil
| Biome | Climate | Vegetation | Soil |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tropical Rainforest | Hot, wet all year | Dense multi-layered canopy, epiphytes, buttress roots | Thin, poor (nutrients in trees) |
| Hot Desert | Hot days, cold nights, very dry | Cacti, succulents, thorny shrubs, xerophytes | Sandy, saline, little humus |
| Savanna Grassland | Wet + dry season | Tall grasses, scattered acacia trees | Laterite, low nutrient |
| Temperate Deciduous | Mild, seasonal rainfall | Oak, beech, ash — shed leaves in winter | Brown earth, fertile |
| Coniferous Forest (Taiga) | Cold, low rainfall | Pine, spruce — needle-shaped, waxy leaves | Podzol, acidic, infertile |
| Tundra | Frozen, permafrost | Mosses, lichens, dwarf shrubs | Permafrost, thin active layer |
10Tropical Rainforest — Deforestation & Management
▼- Structure: emergent layer → canopy → understorey → shrub layer → forest floor
- Biodiversity: ~50% of world's species. Nutrient cycle rapid. Thin soils = fragile ecosystem
- Causes of deforestation: logging, cattle ranching, palm oil plantations, mineral extraction, roads, agriculture, hydroelectric dams (flooding)
Effects of Deforestation
- Species extinction
- Soil erosion / flooding
- Loss of carbon sink
- Climate change
- Disrupted water cycle
- Indigenous displacement
Sustainable Management
- Selective logging
- Replanting programmes
- Ecotourism
- Debt-for-nature swaps
- Protected reserves
- REDD+ programme
11Natural Hazards — Earthquakes, Volcanoes & Tropical Storms
▼- Plate boundaries: Constructive (diverging, new crust formed), Destructive (converging, subduction), Conservative (plates slide past)
- Earthquakes: occur at all plate boundaries. Focus = origin underground; Epicentre = point on surface above focus
- Measuring earthquakes: Richter scale (magnitude); Mercalli scale (intensity of damage)
- Volcanoes: mainly at constructive + destructive boundaries. Shield volcano (gentle slopes, runny lava) vs Composite/Stratovolcano (steep, explosive)
- Tropical storms: form over warm seas (>26°C) between 5°–20° latitude. Conditions: warm water, moist air, Coriolis effect
- Tropical storm structure: eye (calm, low pressure) → eyewall (most intense wind/rain) → spiral bands
LEDC Response (e.g. Haiti)
- Less emergency services
- Poor infrastructure → worse damage
- Depends on aid
- Slower recovery
MEDC Response (e.g. Japan)
- Better preparation
- Early warning systems
- Earthquake-proof buildings
- Faster recovery
12Development — Indicators & the Development Gap
▼| Indicator | What it measures | LEDC vs MEDC |
|---|---|---|
| GNP / GNI per capita | Average wealth per person | Low vs High |
| HDI (Human Dev. Index) | Combines income, education, life expectancy | Low vs High (0–1) |
| Life expectancy | Average age at death | Lower vs Higher |
| Infant mortality rate | Deaths per 1,000 live births under 1 yr | High vs Low |
| Adult literacy rate | % of adults who can read/write | Lower vs Higher |
| Access to safe water | % with clean water | Less vs More |
| % in primary employment | Working in farming | High vs Low |
- Causes of unequal development: colonial history, debt, trade inequality, landlocked location, political instability, disease burden (AIDS, malaria)
- Strategies to reduce gap: fair trade, debt cancellation, aid (short/long term), FDI, microfinance loans, education & healthcare investment
- Fair trade: guarantees minimum price for producers in LEDCs + premium for community projects
13Employment Structure & Economic Activity
▼| Sector | Activities | LEDC % | MEDC % |
|---|---|---|---|
| Primary | Farming, mining, fishing, forestry | High | Low |
| Secondary | Manufacturing, construction, processing | Medium | Medium (declining) |
| Tertiary | Services — retail, education, health, transport | Low | High |
| Quaternary | Research, ICT, knowledge-based (MEDCs) | Very low | Growing |
- As countries develop: primary sector shrinks, tertiary grows — Clark-Fisher model
- Deindustrialisation: decline of manufacturing in MEDCs as jobs move to cheaper countries
- Industrial inertia: industries remain in original location even when original reasons no longer apply
14Food Production & Security
▼- Food security: when all people have access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food
- Factors affecting food supply: climate (drought/flooding), conflict, poverty, land degradation, population growth
- Green Revolution: introduction of HYV seeds, irrigation, fertilisers → increased yield in Asia/India. But: expensive inputs, not suitable for all areas
- Intensive farming: high input per unit area (factory farms, irrigation, pesticides). High yield; environmental damage
- Extensive farming: low input over large area (nomadic herding, ranching). Low yield per hectare; less environmental impact
- GM (genetically modified) crops: higher yield, disease-resistant, drought-tolerant. Concerns: biodiversity, corporate control of seeds
- Sustainable food: organic farming, permaculture, reducing food waste, eating less meat, local sourcing
15Water Supply & Management
▼- Water stress: when demand > supply. Growing population, irrigation, industry, climate change increase demand
- Unequal distribution: some areas have surplus (Amazon), others deficit (Middle East, Sahel)
- Hard water management: dams & reservoirs — store water, HEP, flood control. Problems: displacement, ecosystem damage, cost
- Desalination: removing salt from seawater. Expensive; energy-intensive. Used in Saudi Arabia, UAE
- Water conservation: drip irrigation (most efficient), water recycling, metering, grey water reuse
- Three Gorges Dam (China): world's largest HEP dam. Benefits: power, flood control. Issues: 1.3 million displaced, ecosystem damage
16Energy — Types, Supply & Sustainability
▼Non-Renewable Energy
- Oil, coal, natural gas
- Nuclear (finite uranium)
- Finite — will run out
- Produces CO₂ (except nuclear)
- Cheap & reliable today
Renewable Energy
- Solar, wind, HEP, tidal
- Geothermal, biomass
- Infinite / replenished
- Low/no GHG emissions
- Higher initial cost
- Energy mix: combination of different energy sources a country uses. Diversification reduces dependence on one source
- Energy security: reliable, affordable access to energy. Countries without domestic resources are energy insecure
- Germany's Energiewende: transition from nuclear/coal to renewables. Target: 80% renewable by 2050
- LEDCs often lack energy access → affects development, healthcare, education
17Tourism — Growth, Impacts & Ecotourism
▼- Why tourism has grown: more leisure time, cheaper flights, higher incomes, internet/booking ease, package holidays
- Fastest growth: ecotourism, adventure tourism, cultural tourism in LEDCs
✓ Economic Benefits
- Creates jobs (multiplier)
- Foreign exchange
- Infrastructure investment
- Funding for conservation
✗ Problems
- Seasonal employment
- Leakage to MNCs
- Environmental damage
- Cultural erosion
- Price inflation
- Ecotourism: low-impact tourism that conserves environment and benefits local communities. E.g. Costa Rica, Galapagos Islands
- Butler Model (TALC): Exploration → Involvement → Development → Consolidation → Stagnation → Decline or Rejuvenation
18Globalisation & Industry Location
▼- Globalisation: increasing interconnectedness of countries through trade, communication, investment, migration
- Factors enabling globalisation: cheaper transport, internet/ICT, free trade agreements, containerisation, MNCs
- Industrial location factors: labour costs, raw materials, market access, transport links, government incentives, land costs, energy supply
- Industrial zones/clusters: businesses locate near each other for shared infrastructure, skilled labour, suppliers
- NICs (Newly Industrialising Countries): e.g. China, India, Brazil, South Korea — rapid industrialisation fuelled by cheap labour + FDI
- Free trade zones / export processing zones: areas with low tax and relaxed regulation to attract foreign companies
19Plate Tectonics
▼| Boundary Type | Movement | Features | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Constructive | Plates move apart | Shield volcanoes, rift valleys, mid-ocean ridges, weak earthquakes | Mid-Atlantic Ridge, East African Rift |
| Destructive | Plates move together | Composite volcanoes, trenches, fold mountains, strong earthquakes, tsunamis | Pacific Ring of Fire, Andes |
| Conservative | Plates slide past | No volcanoes; very strong earthquakes | San Andreas Fault, California |
| Collision | 2 continental plates meet | Fold mountains (no subduction) | Himalayas (India-Eurasia) |
- Convection currents in mantle drive plate movement
- Subduction: oceanic plate (denser) sinks under continental → melts → magma rises → volcano
- Hot spots: volcanoes above mantle plumes, not at plate boundaries (e.g. Hawaii)
20Sustainable Development
▼Definition: "Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." — Brundtland Report, 1987
- Three pillars: economic development + social equity + environmental protection
- SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals): 17 UN goals by 2030. Include no poverty, zero hunger, clean energy, climate action
- Sustainable cities: green roofs, congestion charging, public transport, mixed land use, renewable energy, compact urban form
- Sustainable farming: organic methods, crop rotation, permaculture, reducing food miles, agroforestry
- Sustainable fishing: quotas, closed seasons, mesh size regulations, Marine Protected Areas
- Carbon footprint: total GHGs produced by an individual/organisation. Reduce via renewable energy, less flying, plant-based diet
🧠 Geography Quick Fire
1. Which stage of the Demographic Transition Model shows a rapidly FALLING death rate but still HIGH birth rate?
2. Longshore drift causes sediment to move along a coastline. What landform does this help create at a river mouth?
3. A plate boundary where two plates SLIDE PAST each other is called:
4. Which development indicator would be HIGHEST in a less economically developed country (LEDC)?
5. What process forms an ox-bow lake?
6. The tropical rainforest soil is thin and infertile because:
7. Which type of rainfall occurs when air is forced to rise over a mountain range?
8. Sustainable development is defined as development that: